SIP Security Essay -- Information Technology

Abstract The session initiation protocol (SIP) is emerging as standard protocol for session control in Next generation voice over internet protocol (VoIP) As it is based on IP it is vulnerable to all IP related threats . Among all the attacks, flood-based denial of service DoS attack is one of the main threats to SIP. Several solutions regarding prevention of DoS are discussed. Efficient Security scheme is proposed for batter performance. I. INTRODUCTION Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) [1] is signaling protocol given by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for IP telephony. Moreover, the 3rd generation partnership program (3GPP) has chosen SIP as a signaling protocol in IP multimedia subsystem (IMS). With more and more multimedia applications and the digital audio/video transport over IP-based networks, SIP is becoming the de-facto signaling protocol. In fact, SIP is a session control protocol that can establish, modify, and terminate multimedia sessions such as Internet telephone calls (VoIP). SIP users are indicated by Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI), consisting of a pair of user name and domain name, e.g. sip:ali@abc.co.uk , which is similar to the email format. SIP signaling between multiple users consists of requests and responses .A call is set up in SIP by the three-way handshake composed of INVITE, 200 OK and ACK messages. The INVITE request asks the cal lee to join or establish a call. If the cal lee’s response indicates that he/she accepts the call by sending the 200 OK response message, the caller confirms that it has received the response by sending the ACK message. When the caller or cal lee wishes to terminate a call, they send a BYE request. ... ... June 2001. [8] T. Peng, C. Leckie, and K. Ramamohanarao, â€Å"Protection from distributed denial of service attacks using history-based IP 108 filtering,† Communications, 2003. ICC'03. IEEE International Conference on, vol. 1, 2003 [9] S. D. D'Souza, and D. Vinokurov, â€Å"Queuing methods for mitigation of packet spoofing†, US Patent App, 2004 [10] M.A. Akbar, M.Farooq, â€Å"Application of Evolutionary Algorithms in Detection of SIP based Flooding Attacks†GECCO’09, July 8–12,2009, Montrà ©al Quà ©bec, Canada.ACM. [11] M.A. Akbar, Z.Tariq and M.Farooq, â€Å"A Comparative Study of Anomaly Detection Algorithms for Detection of SIP Flooding in IMS†, Next Generation Intelligent Networks Research Center (nexGIN RC), 2009.

Cruise Tourism Industry

Cruise tourism industry is has become the most important icon of modern tourism in the 21st century. This has mainly been prompted by the changing human utilitarian demands and globalization which makes it much easier to move and interact with environment and other people. Besides, it has been boosted by vast advancement in technology that makes it easy for the people to move out within the highest considerations of safety, comfort, and precise predetermination of the expected destination.Cruise tourism industry has given the tourism total revolution making the industry to be one of the most important sectors in the world economy (Kingston, 2006). However the development and future of the industry is highly dependent on the emergent issues that directly affect the world economy as the main source of consumers for the industry, the international peace & stability especially of the destination regions, the environmental considerations for the industry, and the regions of destination. O f greater importance however, is the consumers desire to explore and experience new aspects and phenomenon different from their home settings.Besides, it forms a direct platform for effective research in different aspects of psychology, natural sciences, social interactions and technological applications (Wood, 2000). Therefore, it depicts a coterminous entity upon where vast applications can be simultaneously applied and studied with ease. Overview of the cruise industry Historical background and development of the industry The current Cruise tourism industry has a long history dating back to the late 19th century when Prinzessin Victoria Luise was finished and commissioned by Hamburg-American Line Company for Transatlantic expeditions.However, historians argue that cruise voyages have existed since the famous travel of Christopher Columbus. Though scholars have sharply been divided over the issue, a common ground appears to have been reached with re-definition of tourism and chara cterisation of its different aspects. Most of the ancient voyages were driven by desire to search for new lands and exploit them for economic gains and less concerned with need for pleasure and site seeing of the current tourism (Kingston, 2006).However, it is very clear that the modern system has directly been shaped by the historical connotations and vastly modified by advancement in technology to reflect its present situation. During the mid 20th century, intercontinental travellers largely used ships for their movement due to the resultant comfort and good experience attached to it (Abraham & Yoel, 1999). However, most of them were directly travel oriented and had less to do with tourism demands. It was due to these experiences that the current systems of massive cruise ships largely establish its basement and progress.More cruise ships specifically meant for holiday were established with greater emphasis for comfort and satisfaction being given much higher priorities (Charles & Brent, 2006). However, most of the cruise considerations were thought to be reservations for the upper class while the lower classes had no position in the same type of expeditions. The current cruise ships are fully inclusive and entirely meant for all the people as the cost adjusts downwards with the rising suppliers of the services. Organization and management Due to the high returns from the industry, massive investments have been mobilized by the different cruise industries.Unlike the previous travelling where much smaller and simpler systems operated with greater focus of transferring people from one destination to another only, the current cruise ships are organised much like float hotels with complete hospitality staff. In the Royal Caribbean International, the staffs in the ship are equal or slightly less than the number of tourists on-board. Effective coordination and management with technicians, engineers, security, and astrologists form the technical bench in the MS Libe rty of the Seas.Besides, they are well manned from the land by constant coordination with the base surveillance monitoring unit via satellite. In the Minors of the Sea, several thousand meals are several thousand meals are served at any particular sitting. The system has been equated to an ecological unit with all the systems highly interdependent and fully self sustaining with minimal external monitoring. Demand for the cruise tourism Since late 1980s, the demand for cruise tourism has strongly risen globally as different generations change the approach to tourism to become part of their lifestyle demands which sets a strong mark of achievement.Compared to the demand during the ‘rebirth' of the industry in 1980s', the demand had doubled by the year 2005. An average of 500,000 people in North America took cruises by the onset of 1980s (Zeneth, 2008). However, the industry was marred by uncertainty due to poor development of technology and lack of enough information for the ind ustry. Besides, cruising was mostly undertaken in US and Eastern Europe only with other countries being at the tender ages of developing their systems. Since then, the demand has been rising at an average rate of 8% annually and is expected to reach a total of 10 million cruises by the year 2007.This number has been projected to continue rising as more players have ventured into the market shifting the previously upper class venture consideration to an all people exercises for faster expansion of the business. By 2015, it is predicted that the number of people cruising the oceans will reach 17 million a 70% increase on the 2000 total number. According to the cruise lines international (CLIA), the demand from the people is double the current number of the cruisers but strongly restricted by location which hinders accessibility (Chris et al, 2008).The most visited region is the Caribbean with over 80% of the tourists it every year. Europe regions are also greatly visited especially al ong the Mediterranean Sea routes. However, fast demand is shifting to the Baltic land along Copenhagen, Tallinn, Stockholm, Helsinki and St. Petersburg ports. Supply of cruise tourism Arguably, the supply of Cruise Tourism has been rising very fast over the last three decades. However, the pace is considered to be a slow one compared to the level of demand by the people for the same services.As indicated earlier cruise tourism is one of the most expensive ventures in the world. Though most travellers view is as a system of get-enjoy-achievement, the underlying harmonization entails vast demands in terms of engineering, coordination and human labour management, security connotation, and international considerations of environment and related protocols. As a result, only few industries have been wiling to venture into the complicated business (Charles &Brent, 2006). This has left the field to smaller ships with much lower holding capacities to operate the lucrative business.The modern carriers are generally much bigger with massive and advanced facilities to hold and secure more consumers with higher levels of comfort during the voyage. Currently, Carnival Corporations is one of the largest cruise companies owning Princess Cruise ship, Swan Hellenic, P& O Cruises and Costa Cruises among others operating US and Europe. By 2010, the company aims at having over 100 cruise ships added to the current 200 operating in the sea. Other major operators and suppliers of the services include Royal Caribbean which is highly established in the North American region.It serves the tourists even to further destinations like Bermuda regions and the polar areas. Norwegian Cruise Lines serves most of the Europe especially along the Mediterranean sea with extension to the polar regions and the Baltic lands. Currently, cruise tourism is becoming a mass market with other major players like India, China, Japan, and Singapore establishing their cruising tourism systems to tap the fast r ising demand. In US, 1/3 of the cruise sails from the port of Miami with others sailing from Port Everglades, Port Canaveral, New York, Tampa, Galveston, and San Juan.Many of the UK cruise lines operate from Barbados (Zeneth, 2008). Economic aspects of cruise tourism Due to the high demands for the cruise services in the world, most of the countries have greatly reaped from the establishment. With the currently demand being expected to rise to 11. 9 and 5. 3 million in America and Europe respectively, World Trade Organization indicates that the sector will form a strong economic support for the individual countries by the year 2015. International Council of Cruise Lines indicates that the industry is riding a strong line of consumer demand improving the economic conditions in North America.According to Zeneth (2008), an average economic impact of the cruise industry spending is estimated at US $ 1, 523 million annually including the total consumption of the ship and passengers. Owin g to the current growth rate of the industry, the amount is expected to double as the industry becomes more vibrant and more players venture into the business. Most of the seaports where the cruise ships take off have highly developed from the business. Scholars argue that the â€Å"flavour and taste† of port cities like Miami, St.Peters burg and Barbados have fully changed to reflect the new ideals of superiority and expensive derivation. The efficiency of the services and facilities offered in these towns have greatly increased with modern aspects relating to cruise tourism improving with speed to cater for the fast growing business (Chris et al, 2008). In Australia, the Cruise industry is expected to contribute immensely to the country's economy in the next decade. Most of the industries specializing in human services provision have found special niches where they can get fast market for their products and services.Environmental aspects of cruise tourism Though this indust ry is fast growing and offering vast promises to the investors and the economy, major concerns have been cited in its application and which requires strong consideration necessary for reducing possible negative effects. Over the years, environment has become a major concern for the cruise tourism industry. Taking into consideration that most of the cruise ships are very large and hold vast numbers of people, the system is also expected to generate vast wastes and emissions into the environment as it tries to sustain them and itself (Sarah & Claudia, 2008).Most of the cruise ships are petroleum driven and consume vast quantities of fuel. This is mainly used in production of electricity used in cooking, propelling the ship and maintaining its on-board supportive systems. As a result, it releases vast emissions into the atmosphere contributing to global warming. With the current rise in production and use of large cruise ship in the world, their total contribution into the atmosphere h as been projected to surpass vehicles production by 2015.A large Cruise ship like Royal Caribbean International has been indicated to have higher capacity to produce envisions equal to to production of 1200 cars (Zeneth, 2008). Owing to the large numbers of the people involved, vast quantities of food prepared and served, supportive services like cleaning and maintenance of these ships during the voyages, they release a lot of effluents and solid wastes into the sea. Most of the petroleum effluents have high sulphur contents that easily change the properties the immediate water threatening the vast biodiversity in the cruise ship travelling lines.Cleaning and maintenance of the cruise ship involves use of chemicals that too end up in the waste stream coming from the ship. The argument that ocean water forms strong and effective dilution mediums that have high capacity to assimilate most of their wastes is totally wrong. The International Convention for the Prevention of Ship Polluti on denotes the essence of respecting the ecological integrity and sanctity necessary for harmonious coexistence of all the ecosystems. During the year 2002, the massive death of Penguins in the southern polar region was attributed to ship pollution (Sarah & Claudia, 2008).Solid wastes management has also posed massive threats to the wildlife in the sea. Most of the lines along the cruise ship path ways highly littered with plastic bags and metallic cans for refreshments. Conclusion and recommendation Cruise ship industry has been growing at a tremendous rate since mid 20th century. This has been caused by the fast rising demand and opening up of the industry to all the people as opposed to the prior social classes consideration. As a result more players and investors have entered into the industry opening its lager contribution to the world economy.Arguably, the last two decades have seen US and Europe dominate the world cruise market with large percentage. However, other players fr om developing countries have effectively come up to participate in fast growing sector. Cruise tourism holds the key to the future of tourism industry as people change their consumerism patterns for different services (David & Richard, 2008). However, the industry should address issues relating to its negative impacts especially to the environment.Most importantly, the company owners should establish better ships that have higher fuel combustion efficiency in order to reduce the overall emissions to the atmosphere. Besides, liquid and solid waste treatment systems should also be installed to reduce their poisonous nature to the marine environment along the routes that these cruise ships follow. Reference list Abraham, P. & Yoel, M. (1999). Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism. Bonn: Haworth Press. Chris, C. , John, F. , Stephen, W. & David, G. (2008). Tourism: Principles and Practice. Geneva: Pearson Education. Charles, R. &Brent, R. (2006).Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philos ophies. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Kingston, R. (2006). Cruise Ship Tourism. New York: CABI. David, J. & Richard, S. (2008). Tourism and Development in the Developing World. London: R outledge publishing press. Sarah, V. & Claudia, C. (2008). Water Pollution Issues and Developments. Brussels: Nova Publishers. Wood, R. (2000) ‘Caribbean cruise tourism: globalization at sea', Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 345-70 Zeneth, P. (2008). Tourism development: Analytical consideration of Cruise tourism industry, Journal of tourism management, 29(41): 401-469

Anomie Theory

Right off the bat when reading the article it states that it's the most widely read article in sociology. The author Robert K. Merton opens his paper by first challenging certain offenses that were popular in 1938. Most of the theories that Merton has analyzed mentioned â€Å"biological drives†. Some of the theorists view crime as â€Å"biological drives† in which our society comes to terms with restraining it. What I found interesting, Merton doesn't agree with other theorists, he, on the other hand, argues that a person or persons drive for crime is frequently shown to be stemmed from society itself. This is when his theory or argument splits into two parts. The article refers to his â€Å"anomie theory†. This hypothesis of his is looked to be explained why certain parts of societies have increased rates of criminal activity than let's say, the other half of the societies in which they appear to have decreased rates of criminal activity. Merton focuses on the relative emphasis placed on this set cultural goals society has placed as well as the institutionalized norms for achieving these goals of society. It is come to know some certain places in society have a high comparative prominence which is called cultural goals. Also, to have a low corresponding value of the norms or as well some gain the achievement of goals, which increases the rate of crimes. Merton characterizes these societies by using the terms anomie or normlessness, whereas it is explained from â€Å"the goal-seeking behavior†, Merton mentions. An individual is exposed to little commands or in other words law. This turns into a repercussion for persons employing the most beneficial values including that of criminal acts in order to achieve their once again prize. The â€Å"strain† theory Merton discusses in this half of the article argues that some person and persons within a society are being exposed to â€Å"special† pressures that of criminal actions. Merton mentions that while it is urged as well as expected that people strive for financial riches, people of the lower class are prevented from achieving this goal. This leads to individuals to have pressure, but even then they can adapt to the strain or so-called pressures of values. Continuing of Merton briefly discusses why some types of individuals are more likely to respond to strain with crime than others. Merton's strain theory has been the subject of extensive commentary and researches the evidence for his strain theory which is mixed. Certain recent tests of this theory seem to be at it's accurate as well as the anomie theory. The anomie theory proposes that criminal activity is most seen in those who place much emphasis on cultural goals and little on the norms for achieving the goals, meaning to be successful. Before going into the article I made a note that has caught my attention about the author itself. Albert K. Cohen was a student of Robert K. Merton. I just found this to be very intriguing because some of his points or theories have been taken into account in Cohen's articles. Cohen has a particular interest and focus of criminal societies. To narrow it down, Cohen focuses more on the lower-working-class urban gangs of 1950, during that time they were the subject of attention. Cohen in the article poses a question of: â€Å"How can we explain the origin and content of delinquent subcultures?† Since he was a student of Merton as I said before he draws some of Merton's theory to provide his own, collective answer to the question which is often outlined throughout the article. In the first part of his theory, that is being stated in the first section of the article. Cohen provides a well-explained origin of deviant social groups. The second section applies that the theory to explain the origin and contents of man it has to be specified by gender. Cohen focuses on working-class males and urban gangs. While I was reading the parts of the article, I have noted and made some comparisons and contrasts with Merton's strain theory. Similar to Merton, Cohen argues that â€Å"goal blockade† is what causes delinquency. Now Cohen, on the other hand, argues that lower and working class males don't concern themselves with the goal of cultural goals. Other than the obvious of not concerning themselves with achieving this success, they would rather concern themselves with the fulfillment of making it to the higher societal class. The achievement of broader goals referred to the respect from the higher-ups in the financial success aspect of cultural goals. This was noted by Cohen to be crucial because of the difference in goals. It is said in the article that an individual can obtain financial riches through illegal activities such as theft, this is one of Merton's adaptations of innovation. An individual can't steal the status of a higher class, which makes perfect sense since it could lead to a huge consequence, which Cohen discusses throughout the article. The consequence is that the lower and working class often have to evolve to the goal blockade by making an alternative plan. This is how someone, an individual would gain their true success. This is also noted to be very much alike to Merton's adaptations of criminal behavior, in which was explained that these new goals and methods are basically being replaced for the previous goals instead of the new. From reading onward I made the connection that both the lower and working class share hostility towards the middle-class persons. The hostility leads them to set up a status quo that values everything that the apparent middle class doesn't concern itself with. Based on these very theories it is explained that the middle class values private property and respect for an individual. Now, this caught my attention because it made me question his theory. It's suggesting that lower and working class boys don't value such things. Also, in the theory, it gives an example of what I was questioning. The example that was given was that while gangs of some sorts value the destruction and theft of any property probably more towards private property and leading more towards aggression towards others. Cohen then goes onto the explanatory origins and contents of the criminal social group. After getting towards the end of the article it states the definite features of his hypothesis. Theorists have come to the main claim that the goals of criminal persons are not disagreeable to an idea of standard goals as Cohen has explained throughout his theory. Even though there has been a criticism the data shows and tends to often prove and support this argument. All of this information that was given by this theorist Cohen brings a fundamental contribution to criminal law. Anomie Theory Anomie theory is important for explaining whether crime is a normal or abnormal (pathological) social phenomenon (Cartwright, 2011). It describes a lack of social norms, lawlessness and normlessness (Cartwright, 2013). In detail, it is a breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community. This theory was first coined by Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist in his book Suicide published in 1897 (Cartwright, 2013). Later on, Robert Merton, the President of American Sociological Association, developed the link between anomie and social structure. Unlike Durkheim, Merton used the notion from Durkheim’s anomie theory and explains that social structure could exert pressure on an individual and directly cause deviance (Cartwright, 2011). This theory is better known as the Anomie-Strain Theory. Furthermore, in 1994, Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld, like Merton, brought more attention to social organization and social institutions instead of focusing on individuals when analysing crimes (Cartwright, 2011), so the Institutional-Anomie Theory was developed. In order to understand the anomie theory better, the developments of this theory from Emile Durkheim to Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld should all be considered. For Emile Durkheim, his main concern about anomie was social solidarity (Cartwright, 2011). Based on this concern, he divided solidarity into two categories: mechanical solidarity, which maintains low adaptation skills; and to the contrary, organic solidarity whose inertia sensitively needs changes (Cartwright, 2013). Durkheim observed that these two groups would co-exist. The reason is that anomie is impossible when solidarity is organic. Their sensitivity to change leads to evolution among this form of labour. Later in 1897, Durkheim pointed out that the suicide rates were due to the dramatic economic changes, such as economic depression and the sudden growth of the economy (Cartwright, 2011). â€Å"According to Durkheim, these periods of anomie –times of normlessness, lawlessness, and unregulated choice – made individuals more susceptible to committing suicide or engaging in deviant behaviour† (Cartwright, 2011, p. ). In this study, Durkheim associated anomie with the influence of a lack of the norms. In Durkheim’s study of anomie theory, two notions should not be neglected. Firstly, Emile Durkheim referred to society much like a functioning organism (Cartwright, 2011), evidence for the theory can be easily found in his referring to the society as â€Å"the social organism† or â€Å"the functions of the central or gan† (Cartwright, 2011, p. 6). In order to maintain the continuation of the organism, each of the integrated parts has to be working well. Secondly, Durkheim discussed crime as an â€Å"abnormal† activity, which indicates that a certain proportion of crimes are normal and happens in most societies, (Cartwright, 2011). f in the steps of Durkheim’s study, Robert Merton described more about the relationship between social structure and anomie theory, later known as the anomie-strain theory. The definition of the word â€Å"strain† in the verb form means to subject to tension or stress. This meaning is very similar to the strain theory. The theory indicates that the social structure of a society may pressure or force the citizens to commit crimes, due to the failure to provide many individuals’ with â€Å"the conventional means necessary to realize those culture goals†, which also means that the individual lacks access to cultural goals, such as money, job, or education (Merton, 1938). In Merton’s publication Social Structure and Anomie, he provides a good example that explains his theory. For example, in the USA, the society’s general goal is wealth; therefore, in order to achieve this certain goal, the institutionalized manner is to be hard-working or obtaining education (Merton, 1938). Based on this theory, Merton identifies five modes of adaptation, including conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion (as cited in Cartwright, 2011, p. 21). According to Merton, innovators are most likely to engage in criminal behaviour, since they may accept the recognition of certain cultural goals but reject achieving the goals in a legitimate way (Merton, 1938). This illegitimacy adjustment as the major concern involves two features (Merton, 1938). Firstly, such antisocial behavior â€Å"by certain conventional values of the culture and by the class structure involving differential access to the approved opportunities for legitimate, prestige-bearing pursuit of the culture goal† (Merton, 1938, p. 27). Secondly, it is the consideration of equal significance. Because of the limitation of legitimate effort, for those individuals with formal education and few economic resources, success is hard to get (Merton, 1938). In addition, Merton declared that the theory he studied was incomplete, since various structural elements were neglected; for example, â€Å"the relevance of cultural conflict for an analysis of culture-goal and institutional-means malintegration† has not yet been examined, and â€Å"the social function performed by illicit responses† has also been omitted (Merton, 1938, p. 30). As for Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld (1995), their study, known as the institutional-anomie theory, focused more on how criminal behavior is affected institutionally, such as by schools, churchs or companies. Messner and Rosenfeld declared that criminology has overly focused on analyzing the behavior of individuals, such as mental illness, but paid less attention on how social organization and institutions influence the behaviour (Rosenfeld & Messner, 1995). Based on the comparison chart that Messner and Rosenfeld established in Crime and the American Dream: an Institutional Analysis, the statistic shows that the United States of America has the highest rates of robbery or homicide among a number of countries (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). The reason is due to â€Å"the crime causing nature of American-style capitalism and its unique cultural goals or aspiration† (Cartwright, 2011, p. 52). Messner and Rosenfield are also concerned about the normal functions of social institutions. The definition of â€Å"institutions† means â€Å"relatively stable sets of norms and values, statuses and roles, and groups and organizations† (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995, p, 60). At this point, Messner and Rosenfeld introduced four major social institutions: political system or polity, economy, institution of family and institution of education (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). Even though these four institutions may not seem directly relevant to crime; however, according to Messner and Rosenfeld, in order to analyse the crime in the United States, the interconnection between these four institutions are central (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). In this study, Messner and Rosenfeld (1995) also talked about the institutional balance of power. Due to the monetary need of every cooperation and institution, the economy â€Å"has come to dominate the other three institutions† (Cartwright, 2011, p52). The devaluation of the economy has overcome the other three major institutions. At last, the dominance of the economy has developed to a very extreme level, and the monetary goals bring out the term â€Å"the ends justify the means† (Cartwright, 2011, p, 52). As the development of anomie theory, from Emile Durkheim to Robert Merton to Messner and Rosenfeld, is discussed, the elements that tie these together is that they all try to figure out the reasons that cause criminal behavior and examines as to why crime happens. This also counts as a similarity between the three anomie theories. In the article â€Å"Cheap Capitalism† written by Hongming Cheng, he characterized cheap capitalism by â€Å"low prices, inferior quality and unsafe condition of goods or services to maximize profits† (Cheng, 2012, p, 254). Cheng also pointed out that the cheap capitalism is â€Å"facilitated by cheap labour and raw materials and, more importantly, associated with degraded morality in the business world† (Cheng, 2012, p, 254). In my opinion, the article provides a good example of and explanation for crime in the non-capitalist countries, such as China. Cheng gives an example about food crime, which involves rampant institutions using cheap and dangerous industrial chemicals in foods (Cheng, 2012). One explanation will be that the food industries provides low-quality food to cheap labourers, since the poor working class cannot afford buying expensive but healthy food (Cheng, 2012). The case is related to the institutional-anomie theory studied by Messner and Rosenfeld (1995). One way to cause crime could be due to the social structure and social institutions. In the article, Cheng also provides a table of scales from 1 (not very important) to 4 (very important) that describes the factors that may lead to and influence the food crime. It turns out that social culture, moral and values got rated 3. 8 out of 4, followed by â€Å"lack of adequate enforcement† that got 3. 6 (Cheng, 2012). From this table, it shows that â€Å"moral anomie is a major factor that associated with food crime† (Cheng, 2012, p, 265). From my perspective, the institutional-anomie theory is connected to this case the most. In conclusion, the development of anomie theory, from Emile Durkheim to Messner and Rosenfeld, provides brilliant ideas and thoughts that explain crime thoroughly. The evidence that supports their theory is solid and valid. Based on this, it makes the theory complete and reasonable.

Contradiction Between Innocence and Individuality in the Age of Innocence

CONTENTS |ABSTRACT†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |2 | | †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |3 | |1 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |4 | |2 Individuality and Innocence in The Age of Innocence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |6 | |2. Ellen’s Individualistic Qualities†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |7 | |2. 2 May’s Artificial Innocence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |10 | |2. 3 Contradiction between Individuality and Innocence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |12 | |3 Old New York Society in The Age of Innocence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |14 | |3. The Social Values of Old New York Society†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |15 | |3. 2 Attitude toward Ellen’s Individuality†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |16 | |3. 3 Attitude toward May’s Innocence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |17 | |4 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |18 | |BIBLIOGRAPHY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |20 | ABSTRACT Edith Wharton is acknowledged as one of the most important American female writers in the early 20th century, who produced many works of different types such as novels, poems, critic essays, travelling diaries and autobiographies. The Age of innocence, the most successful work, made her the first woman win Pulitzer Prize in 1921. Ellen Olenska and May Welland, are two female protagonists in The Age of Innocence. Through analysis on the omparison between different personalities of these two protagonists and society’s different attitudes towards them, the author of this paper attempts to argue that the conventionality of society is much weightier than the pursuit of individuality in that given era, yet the individuals, especially women should step out their circumscribed roles to realize their unique identity. Key Words: The Age of Innocence, individuality, innocence, convention Contradiction between Innocence and Individuality in The Age of Innocence 1 Introduction Edith Wharton, novelist and writer of short fiction, was born into a carefully guarded upper class of New York society in 1862 and died in 1937. Her parents, George Jones and Lucretia Rhinelander, were from two aristocratic families that dominated New York society. Both her father’s and mother’s family protected her in the New York Four Hundred[1]. Though born in New York, Wharton was transformed by European culture and tradition because she once lived in France, Italy, Germany and Spain between the age of four and ten. She herself insisted that after she returned to New York at the age of ten, she â€Å"never felt otherwise than as in exile in America. † So deeply influenced by both European and American culture, Wharton produced a great number of fictions with the background of New York society and European experience. During her lifetime, Wharton published numerous works as a writer, including 86 short stories, 11 collections of short fiction, 22 works of large fiction, 3 collections of poetry, books on architecture and gardens, a travel book, a critical study called The Writing of Fiction, and an autobiography A Backward Glance. Wharton achieved great accomplishment as a female writer in American literary history. Her most productive period as a novelist began with the publication of The House of Mirth in 1905 and ended with the publication of The Age of Innocence in1920, which enabled her to become the first female writer who was awarded the Pulitzer Prize. Elizabeth Ammon once argued that women â€Å"like Wharton, Cather and Stein† were â€Å"the real giants against whom† writers such as Fitzgerald and Hemingway â€Å"needed to define themselves. The Age of Innocence was the most sophisticated novel written by Edith Wharton in the year of 1920, when American women first had the right to vote. Wharton reviewed the 1870s New York upper-class society in the sight of 1920s. Like most of her works, The Age of Innocence tells a story about love and marriage among three characters: Newland Archer, Ellen Olenska and May Welland. Young lawyer Newland and beautiful girl May announce their engagement a t the party for welcoming the return of Ellen Olenska, May’s cousin who was born in New York but later has grown up in Europe and married a wealthy Polish Count. Ellen comes back to New York for her family’s support and comfort because of her husband’s unfaithfulness. However, as she claims to divorce, the whole family as well as the whole Old New York society strongly opposes to it for they regard divorce as scandal and humiliation. So they send Newland to persuade Ellen from her decision. However, Newland is gradually fascinated by Ellen’s confidence, sophistication and individuality, which he never feels from his innocent fiancee and inevitably falls in love with her. He hesitates between the two totally different women and vacillates whether he run off with Ellen to live a life with moral freedom and personal fulfillment or marry May to live a decent life accepted by the whole upper class though he still loves Ellen. Later, he actually marries May but after their marriage, Newland dates with Ellen frequently and has planned to elope with her to Europe. However, to everyone’s surprise, May’s announcement of pregnancy smashes Newland’s wish thoroughly. It traps Newland in the excruciating marriage and expels Ellen from New York society. Thus, at the end of the story, the three characters all surrender to their destiny. Many major literary critics and authors have reviewed The Age of Innocence. The list of writers and scholars who have reviewed it includes such important figures as Carl Van Doren, Henry Seidel Canby, William Lyon Phelps and Vernon L. Parrington. The criticism of The Age of Innocence is roughly divided into two categories: Naturalism and Feminism. The former one thinks that this novel is influenced by Wharton’s growing background and the vast change of society. The latter one holds the opinion that the novel expresses the female constrain and rebellion. Both of the two views make sense. The Age of Innocence gives us a portrait of Old New York society in 1870s, a particular moment in history when individuality is shunned and a set of social rituals and conventions are enforced. During that period, it is common that the intellectuals, artists and writers are not welcomed by Old New York society members for they would probably bring about ideas and opinions that are disconcerting. On the contrary, most members believe that they have the duty to follow the rules and conventions upheld by Old New York society, and few of them are able to get rid of them and take their lives into their own hands. However, Ellen Olenska, the leading female protagonist in The Age of Innocence, as an alien and invader of Old New York society, is against those rigid conventions to a large extent. Brought up in Europe, Ellen has become a kind of female maintaining her own individuality which does not exist in those New York women at all. It is exactly this kind of individuality that conflicts against the national celebration of female innocence. 2 Individuality and Innocence in The Age of Innocence Literary works always have their female protagonists as â€Å"heroines†. It is generally accepted that men are born to develop their individual identities while women are doomed to serve men. They should be â€Å"relative to men. To please them, to make themselves loved and honored by them, to make life sweet and agreeable to them——these are the duties of women at all times, and what should be taught them from their infancy. (Rousseau 1966, p. 263) So in many men’s novels, women usually serve as the mere subordinate characters. However, in Wharton’s novels, the female figures weigh as important as male figures. Just as Mary Kelly once pointed out, the female figure in Wharton’s novels is â€Å"a strong, commanding, central figure in the home, a supportive and guiding redeemer for husband; a model and teacher of rectitude for children; and a reformer of and servant to an American society judged to be in dire need of regeneration. Yet on the other hand, â€Å"an undercurrent of despair runs throughout the novels which question the possibility of women’s autonomy and individuality. † (Dudovitz 1900, p. 88) The idea is well presented in Wharton’s The Age of Innocence. There are two sharply contrasted female characters: Ellen Olenska and May Welland. May Welland is a charming young girl with the careful bringingup in Old New York society who represents innocence. On the contrary, Ellen Olenska, the disturbing element of that society, is a dark, passionate beauty touched with the xperience and idea of Europe who represents individuality. 2. 1 Ellen’s Individualistic Qualities Ellen Olenska, one of the female protagonists in The Age of Innocence, is born in an aristocratic family of formidable social background in New York. However, her parents were dead when she was a little girl. So she grows up in Paris full of music and art with her aunt, Mrs. Medora Manson, a lady being independent. This distinguishes Ellen from the characters of those typical New Yorkers in The Age of Innocence. Unlike the innocent May, Ellen is mysterious and attracts all people’s eyes. In the opening scene of the novel, when those aristocrats are watching the opera â€Å"Faust† in the new Opera House, Ellen’s first appearance makes all people shocked because she is â€Å"a slim young woman, a little less tall than May Welland, with brown hair growing in close curls about her temples and held in place by a narrow band of diamonds†¦which gave her what was then called ‘Josephine look’, †¦carried out in the cut of the dark blue velvet gown rather theatrically caught up under her bosom by a girdle with a laree old-fashioned clasp. † (Wharton 1996, p. 7) When she was a little child, Ellen â€Å"scandalized† (ibid. p. 52) her family because she â€Å"was in crimson merino and amber beads, like a gipsy foundling† (ibid. , p. 53), and was â€Å"a fearless and familiar little thing, who asked disconcerting questions, made precocious comments, and possessed outlandish arts, such as dancing a Spanish shawl dance and si nging Neapolitan love-songs to a guitar† (ibid. , p. 53). Unlike her other cousins growing up in the respectively restricted atmosphere, Ellen receives â€Å"expensive but incoherent education† which makes her incompatible with the society, and thus she is doomed to isolation and separation from the old New York society. Ellen leaves her unfaithful husband in Europe for the comforts from her family members in New York. However, when she returns, she notices that everything has changed from her memory. And through a series of events, it can be concluded that Ellen is a sincere, strong-minded, independent and sophisticated person with strong individuality. Beauvoir says, â€Å"It is required of woman that in order to realize her femininity, she must make herself object and prey which is to say that she must renounce her claims as sovereign subject. It is this conflict that especially marks the situation of the emancipated woman. † (Beauvoir 1953, p. 643) Ellen is such kind of emancipated woman with courage and independence. When she comes back to New York for comfort, her past brings her not sympathy but endless rumors and mocks among those so-called aristocrats. In order to seek freedom, Ellen leaves her unfaithful husband and returns to New York. However, her word and behaviors are striking and intolerable to most of the New Yorkers who are always devoted to keeping their circle decent and conventional. Ellen’s individuality is reflected in her confrontment with different men. Soon after she arrives in New York, she breaks the conventional rules of the old society and seeks the company of gentlemen at the party. What she has done makes people uncomfortable because the old pattern requires that a lady â€Å"should wait, immovable as an idol, while the man who wished to converse with her succeeded each other at her side. † (Wharton 1996, p. 56) Her individuality can also be found in her style of dressing and her house decoration. She appears first in a decollete, showing her neck and shoulder. She chooses unadorned dark velvet for the opera, a fur-trimmed lounging robe at home-clothes. And her house is kind of foreign style full of old romantic scenes and sentiment, as â€Å"the scent of some far-off bazaar, a smell made up of Turkish coffee and ambergris and dried roses. † (ibid. , p. 45) What’s more, Ellen is brave enough to renounce her rights. In the Old New York society at that time, the richer the husband is, the less freedom his wife will own. As Ellen realizes that her marriage can no longer continue, she is courageous enough to leave her husband, a noble count with vast fortune and return to her hometown. Unfortunately, her clan as well as the whole New York society is not her backup but the obstacle. They only welcome her on condition that she doesn't bring them unpleasant decisions which will probably destroy the decency of the upper class. Here, Ellen is trapped in a dilemma that her true self is in contradiction with her role in Old New York society. For one, she may win the support of society once she decides to return to her husband. For another, she will lose all the support of society if she insists on divorce. At that time, the legislation was for the divorce while the social convention was against it. At last, driven by her strong desire for seeking individuality, Ellen makes up her mind to give up that marriage and insists in a legal opinion on her divorce. Ellen’s individuality is also reflected in her attitude to Newland. Though deeply affected by each other, Ellen refuses to be the mistress of him because she s clearly aware that if she sinks into this helpless love, she and Newland will be torn into pieces by the harsh reality. Look what Ellen responses when Newland asks her to elope with him: â€Å"For us? But there is no us in that sense! We are near each other only if we stay far from each other. Then we can be ourselves. Otherwise we are only Newland Archer, the husband of Ellen Olenska’s cousin, and Ellen Olenska, the cousin of Newland Archer’s wife, trying to be happy behind the backs of the people who trust them. † (Wharton 1996, p. 243) So, she rejects Newland’s fantasy and persuades him to face the reality by her rationality and individuality. She cannot aimlessly yield to the social conventions by giving up her mind and soul. The road for individuality is full of obstacles and people keep telling her that she will lead a better life if she gives up her idea of freedom and individuality. However, she sticks to her own perseverance and bravely put herself against the social customs. 2. 2 May’s Artificial Qualities May Welland is Newland’s fiancee and succeeds in being his wife later. She is an innocent and dull girl accepted by the whole New York society. It is generally acknowledged that the most salable woman is this virginal girl who is the commodity needed by this materialistic world —— a girl without soul, without self, distorted and twisted from her true nature into a marketable product. (Cerrito 1999, p. 372) In Newland’s as well as Old New York society’s eye, May represents all the merit of aristocratic class. She is â€Å"innocent† because she is a loving and sweet New York upper-class girl who simply doesn't conceive that â€Å"what they do† and â€Å"what they say†. Born into the upper-class family, she receives good training that suits the conventions of her class. She has been taught to remain graceful and noble, ignoring all the unpleasant things and avoiding all the difficulties. During their engagement, Newland sends her lilies of the valley every day, which represents virginal purity. And during a long period, Newland supposes that his wife is an innocent and ignorant girl knowing nothing about evil and disturbing things. Only at the end of the story does he realize that May is actually complicated and calculating. However, the â€Å"innocent† here can e interpreted that she is conventional, unimaginative and does not think for herself, only to ingratiate the society’s expectations. As Newland points out, May is a â€Å"product of social system† (Wharton 1996, p. 7), a â€Å"creation of factitious purity† (ibid. , p. 41) that is blind to reality like â€Å"the Kentucky cave-fish, which had ceased to develop eye s because they had no use for them. † (ibid. , p. 73) May is interested in books, but she cannot appreciate the beauty of contents in Ulysses even with the help of Archer’s explanation. She has little sense of humor which is obvious from her reaction to Newland’s jokes. She is frank, because she has nothing to conceal, assured because she knows nothing to be on her guard against. † (Wharton 1996, p. 41) As a girl of dependence, May actually follows what adults want her to do and say and she is inclined to her mother’ opinion of a long engagement, just for the reason of â€Å"having time to prepare a hand-embroidered trousseau containing the proper number of dozens. † (Wharton 1996, p. 70) Therefore, in spite of her attracting appearance, she lacks all the charming qualities which Ellen obtains to catch the eyesight of Newland. It is mainly due to the background and surroundings where she has grown up. Under such kind of atmosphere, May as well as the other women in the Old New York society gets in touch with little advanced ideas and thus, what they consider right is merely to follow the social conventions. However, May is not as â€Å"innocent† as she looks like. She distinguishes Newland’s feeling towards Ellen at the rather early time, but she pretends to know nothing about it. She keeps silent and remains loyal to Newland even though she suspects the relationship between Newland and Ellen. There is much evidence which can support the statement that May is not so innocent. It can be first identified from Beaufort’s ball when Newland asks about Ellen’s absence. She answers that it is because of the dressing problem that Ellen decides not to appear at the ball. Actually, she knows about the truth that Ellen doesn't come for fear that her scandals may influence her clan’s reputation. Even facing the one she loves, May still doesn't tell the truth. She says and does everything in correspondence with the social conventions rather than her true feelings. In the early time of their engagement, when Newland persuades May to advance their wedding, she responds: â€Å"Is it because you are not certain of continuing to care for me? Is there someone else? I’ve wanted to say this for a long time†¦ I’ve wanted to tell you that, when two people really love each other, I understand there may be situations which make it right that they should- should go against public opinions. And if you feel yourself in anyway pledged†¦and if there is any way, even by her getting divorce, Newland, don't give her up because of me! † (ibid. , p. 127) How beautiful and attracting of what she has said! However, when she really feels that Newland cannot help yielding to the relationship with sophisticated Ellen, she advances the date of their wedding just the moment he thinks of breaking the engagement. After they get married, when feeling their intention to elope to the other country, May persuades Ellen to leave New York by confiding the news of her pregnancy, though she herself doesn't confirm whether it is true or not. Thus, Ellen gives up her decision to continue having an affair with Newland and later returns to Europe. Besides, May’s announcement also pulls back Newland for the responsibility of being a husband and father. 2. Contradiction between Individuality and Innocence In The Age of Innocence, there are two female protagonists with totally different personalities though they have blood relation. Ellen represents the kind of â€Å"New Women† seeking for freedom and individuality, while May stands for the traditional women in Old New York society, graceful a nd innocent. It can be easily identified that May and Ellen are two different kinds of women by comparison of their dressing style and the way they express their ideas and many other aspects. When creating the image of May Welland, Wharton alludes to using Roman myths and the image of Roman goddesses. Brought up in Old New York society, May has received perfect traditional education like other women in her circle. So she owns all the virtues which the society is fond of — beauty, reservation, obedience and innocence. When May appears at the opera at the beginning of the novel, with her pink face and fair hair, she is dressed in white tulle caught modestly at her breasts with a gardenia and is holding a bouquet of lilies of the valley. In western culture, lily of the valley represents not only purity but also the Roman Goddess Diana[2](Artemis). And in this novel, Wharton makes several explicit analogies of May and Diana. For example, when May makes her second formal entry to the Van Der Leyden’s dinner party, it is depicted as follows, â€Å"in her dress of white and silver, with a wreath of silver blossoms in her hair, the tall girl looked like a Diana just alight from the chase. † (Wharton 1996, p. 62) In the contest of archery, she comes out of the tent â€Å"in her white dress, with a pale green ribbon about the waist and a wreath of ivy on her hat, she had the same Diana-like aloofness†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Wharton 1996, p. 11) All of these quotations indicate that May is pure and vigorous like Diana. However, just as puzzled as Newland Archer, â€Å"what if ‘niceness’ arrived to that supreme degree was ‘only a negation, the curtain dropped before an emptiness? ’† (Wharton 1996, p. 212) Through Newland’s puzzlement, Wharton indicates that May’s gracefulness is only a kind of superficial presentation, behind of which is an empty and bland mind. It also indicates that May’s so-called innocence is a kind of cover because Goddess Diana, who represents purity and innocence, usually becomes ruthless when she tries to protect her own family. So May Welland, who knows very much about Old New York society, protects her own interests by the powerful traditional force from her aristocratic class and finally expels her cousin Ellen from New York. To some extent, May is the symbol of Old New York society. On one hand, she represents the moral value orientation of Old New York society, such a superficially harmonious, stable and responsible family relation. On the other hand, she represents the nature of Old New York society that kills people without spilling blood with the graceful appearance. In contrast with May’s innocent image, Ellen is more authentic. rought up in Europe and influenced by European culture, Ellen is full of the quality of freedom and independence. In order to get rid of the miserable marriage, she comes back to New York, hoping she would gain comfort and support from her relatives. However, what she has thought about is not acceptable for the upper class of Old New York society. Ellen’s uniqu e personality and exotic style are displayed from her way of dressing and decorating her house. Unlike her sister May’s white dress and silver blossom, Ellen is dressed in dark blue velvet gown. And while May is linked to white lilies of the valley, Ellen is linked to red and yellow roses. These all indicate that Ellen is full of vitality, passion and sophistication. Unlike those New Yorkers’ indifference, Ellen expresses her own feelings and views frankly towards different people and objects. Ellen’s individuality is also shown from her sympathy and her attitude towards the servants. Ignoring the conventions and rituals held by the upper class of Old New York society, Ellen just does what she thinks is right. When her servant goes out, she lends her own cloak to her, ignoring others’ strange glances. To some degree, Ellen stands for the new trend in Old New York society. Her image symbolizes a group of â€Å"New Women† seeking for freedom and individuality who are influenced by different kinds of trends of thought in literature and art. However, Old New York society still has the predominant status and it is still hard to pass through its value orientation and moral standard. That's why it is impossible for Old New York society to accept Ellen’s unique individuality. Old New York Society in The Age of Innocence In The Age of Innocence, the story is based upon the background of New York society in the 1870s. After the Civil War, America underwent considerable social changes. It was just in the age of transformation to a new world from the old one. With the economic boost, the society changed to some extent. There were two rising groups despite the traditional aristocra ts. One was the newly arrived immigrants from Europe and African Americans from the South. The other one was the newly moneyed classes with large possession but low social status. To Old New York society, these two groups were the invaders and intruders. Heedless of tradition, the newborn riches and immigrants shocked Old New York society with there unfettered manners and their brash displays of wealth. However, it did not mean that the conventions and the rituals would also change. At that time, the social conventions and the popularity of keeping silence still dominated the society. People living in that circle were required to obey the rules and were forbidden to fight against the setting rules. That is to say, it was the particular time and place that individuality was shunned and a set of rituals and conventions were enforced. During that period, people with free ideas and creative thinking were not welcomed by Old New York society. On the contrary, most members believed that they had the duty to follow the rules and conventions upheld by Old New York society, and few of them were able to get rid of them and take their lives into their own hands. 3. 1 The Social Values of Old New York Society In The Age of Innocence, Old New York society refers to the time of 1870s in New York. Though new ideas and improvement flourish throughout the outside world of America, they have never penetrated the conventions of Old New York or changed its long-lasting ritual in any way. This aristocratic class tries its best to fight against creation and innovation. Isolated from the outside world, the society copies itself from generation to generation in its own way. In the novel, we often see children growing up in imitation of their parents. Henry and Louisa van de Luyden dominate this Old New York society through their aristocratic European ancestry. May Archer dies with fulfillment, leaving a daughter resembling her very much. Besides these characters, the public scenes also repeat themselves year after year. The opera circulates itself season after season and the diamond arrow won from the archery match is passed on to the children. Old New York society consists of prominent families. They are classified by hierarchy according to their blood lineage and financial capacity. Usually, the former one is much more important than the latter one. As a matter of fact, the mention of money is disturbing. They talk about it and try to think about it as little as possible. Those new-rich without noble blood relation are usually looked down upon by those self-contained aristocrats. One of the most obvious characteristic of Old New York society is the â€Å"gender specification†. In the novel, many places are gender specific: men go to their libraries talking about politics, finance and other issues after dinner while women use the dining room and the drawing room. In such a male-dominated Old New York society, woman always plays a role as decoration and property of husband and â€Å"the perfect wife and mother†. And the society is in favor of the girls who possess those feminine virtues such as modesty, purity, obedience, gracefulness and innocence. On the other hand, the society doesn't like those girls who pursue freedom and individuality. Another significant figure of Old New York society is the â€Å"dread of innovation†. People are reluctant to change and experience those newly-born things as they may offend their existing conventions and rituals. They are used to those traditions which represent truth in their view. For them, new ideas are as dreadful and fierce as floods and savage beasts. 3. 2 Attitude toward Ellen’s Individuality According to the existing conventions and family purity, Old New York society regards Ellen as doubtful as mushrooms. Although she is born from the Mingott family, her orphanage and long-time living abroad makes her different from those typical New York girls such as May Welland. So Old New York society regards Ellen as an outsider and intruder to their circle. It is widely believed that those fossil New Yorkers like innocent young women more than sophisticated women. Ellen’s orphanage, her experience of living in Europe and her scandal with her Polish husband all challenge the acknowledgement of Old New York society. When Ellen first appears in front of everyone’s eyes, the whole society is shocked because they have never met such kind of woman with strong individuality. They are shocked by both her dressing and her behavior. The way of Ellen’s dressing arouses great disturbance to the upper-class of Old New York society. It is indicated from Leffert’s reaction, the foremost authority of the upper-class of Old New York society. When he sees Ellen at the first sight, he cries out â€Å"my god† and concludes that she could not be one of the Mingott because the Mingott would not dress in that way. If Ellen’s dressing and behavior are shocking to Old New York society, then her decision to divorce might be the blockbuster to them. In Old New York society, it has double standard on the issue of marriage. To be more specific, it demands woman of her completely loyalty to her husband and marriage while man is not required to obey so in the same level. When betrayal happens, it is always woman who is to blame. Although Ellen’s unsuccessful marriage is due to her husband’s unfaithfulness, Leffert still finds it unacceptable of Ellen’s choice to divorce. So when Ellen’s Grandma Mrs. Mingott holds a welcome party for her, he refuses to take part in. As Leffert enjoys high prestige and commands universal respect, other members of the society all follow him and reject the invitation. As a result, no one appears at that party. The refusal to accept Ellen by the whole Old New York society reveals that all people are firmly in favor of conventions and against the nonconformity. In that case, social conformity is much weightier than the pursuit of personal happiness and freedom. In 1870s, it is the time when Old New York society tries their best to exclude the outsiders because they are afraid of destroying their long-lasting rituals. The flourish of bourgeoisie class forces the upper-class to fasten their pace to assert the endangering conventions. For instance, the Van der Luydens are repeatedly required to support the existing rituals. For those New Yorkers, Ellen is too foreign and fashionable, and thus her appearance is the potential threat to the conformity of their circle. She has stayed abroad for so long that they can hardly regard her as their comrade. Her unimaginable idea of divorce with her unfaithful husband is undoubtedly unacceptable to the upper-class. What’s more, Ellen’s spiritual â€Å"date† with Newland is another important reason that banishes her from Old New York society. It is her misfortune that Old New York society at that time is hypocritical and marble-hearted. 3. 3 Attitude toward May’s Innocence Unlike Old New York society’s attitude toward Ellen, May is always welcomed by this circle. In the upper-class of New York, people are more afraid of scandals and rumors than diseases because they think decency is much more important than individuality. In their opinion, keeping stable, unchanged and being innocent, obedient is much weightier than pursuing personal fulfillment. Living in Old New York society since she was born, May is undoubtedly sincere, innocent and sensitive which is in accordance to the society: â€Å"In Old New York society the most salable woman, is the virginal child bride, May Welland, who is commodity demanded by a materialistic world——a woman without soul, without self, distorted and twisted from her true nature into a marketable product. (Cerrito 1999, p. 372) As is mentioned above, May is the most salable woman in Old New York society, which means she is widely welcomed and accepted in that circle. The New York society needs this kind of conventional woman who is without any thought and imagination for change. Brought up by the society, May always obeys all the conventions held by this society and always satisfies the New York society’s and her family’s expectation. In other words, May is the ideal woman in patriarchal system in Old New York society. In this society, it is regarded that women are the subordination of men and is required that women should be fully dependent on men. It is hard to imagine that women have the same rights as men. To this extent, May perfectly matches Old New York society, for â€Å"she is virtuous because she is incapable of temptation, competent because she is incapable of any deep perturbation, and willing to suit herself to the least decorum of their world because she is incapable of understanding that there is anywhere anything larger or freer. †(Carl 1920, p. 86) 4 Conclusion Not as a â€Å"writer of manner† as some critics comment on Edith Wharton, she is an outstanding female writer who seeks for the true meaning of life. During her lifetime, she has devoted to keeping the balance between personal desire and social responsibilities. Although born in an aristocratic family in New York, Wharton discloses the limitations and demerits of her class in a rather cruel way when she writes different novels. Among them, The Age of Innocence is one typical representative which has been awarded the Pulitzer Prize. Wharton wrote The Age of Innocence not just about the lost love, but also about the profound distress caused by the destruction of World War I and by the deaths of her close friends such as Henry James and Howard Sturgis, all of which indicated that the former era had ended. This novel was written in 1920 when World War I had just finished. After that disaster, the world, especially the New York society, was out of order both materially and spiritually. Under the circumstances, Wharton was puzzled so that she decided to write a story with the settings in 1870s in Old New York society. Compared to the reality, Old New York society was much more stable. However, she was also aware that stable as it was, it would strangle all the personal fulfillment and freedom because of its social conventions and rituals. In the 1870s, though Old New York society has experienced great changes, it is not to say that the new social order is free of norms. It is a society which is frightened by change that it absolutely stands for obedience and innocence against creativity and individuality. At that time, women are never given the chance to enjoy economic independence like men. Besides, there are many conventions existing in Old New York society. Women are encouraged to play the role as â€Å"perfect wife and mother† and to tolerate the betrayal of their husbands. All in all, it is concluded that the core of the conventions and rituals in Old New York society is that woman should play passive roles in social affairs and should live for the whole family other than for her own happiness. It is represented in The Age of Innocence by the two protagonists May Welland and Ellen Olenska. It is illustrated how Ellen’s individuality challenges the long-time accepted â€Å"innocence†, and how Old New York society sustains its rules and conventions by oppressing Ellen’s individuality and encouraging May’s obedience to â€Å"innocence†. As a representative of traditional woman in Old New York society, May obeys all the rules regulated by the patriarchal society. On the other hand, as a representative of â€Å"New Woman† in Old New York society, Ellen challenges the traditional woman’s role and tries to be the kind of women of rationality, independence and individuality. As a result, it is concluded that through the contradiction between Ellen’s individuality and May’s â€Å"innocence†, the conventionality of society is much weightier than the pursuit of individuality in that given era, yet the individuals, especially women should step out their circumscribed roles to realize their unique identity. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Aaron, D 1995, ‘Three Old Women’, Queens Quarterly, pp. 633-639. [2] Benstock, S 1994, No Gifts from Chance: A Biography of Edith Wharton, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. [3] Carl, VD 1920, ‘An Elder America’, the Nation, November 3. [4] Cerrito & Joann & Laurie 1999, Modern American Literature, St. James Press. [5] Cordasco, R 2008, ‘Listening to the Narrative Voice in the Pit and The Age of Innocence’, Studies in American Naturalism, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 60-78. [6] Dudovitz, RL 1900, The Myth of Superwoman: Woman’s Bestsellers in France and the United States, Routledge, London. [7] Gargono, WJ 1987, ‘Tableaux of Renunciation: Wharton’s Use of The Shaughran in The Age of Innocence’, Studies in American Fiction, vol. 15, pp. 1-11. [8] Holbrook, D 1991, Edith Wharton and the Unsatisfactory Man, St. Martin’s Press, New York. [9] Judith, F 1984, ‘Purity and Power in The Age of Innocence’, American Literary Realism, vol. 7, pp. 153–68. [10] Klimasmith, B 2008, ‘Salvaging History: Modern Philosophies of Memory and Time in The Age of Innocence’, American Literature, vol. 80, no. 3. [11] McWilliams, J 1990, ‘Wharton’s The Age of Innocence’, Explicator, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 268-70. [12] Pres ton, C 1999, Edith Wharton’s Social Register, Martin’s Press, New York. [13] Rousseau, J 1966, A Treatise on Education, Ginn Health, Boston. [14] Singley, CJ 1995, Edith Wharton: Matters of Mind and Spirit, Cambridge University Press, New York. [15] Singley, CJ 2003, ‘Bourdieu, Wharton and Changing Culture in The Age of Innocence’, Cultural Studies, May, vol. 7, no. 3/4, pp. 495-520. [16] Wharton, E 1996, The Age of Innocence, Bantam Dell, New York. ———————– [1] A phrase coined by Ward McAllister. It represents the number of people in New York who really mattered. [2] Roman Goddess Diana and Greek Goddess was the same person. She was the goddess of[3]Z^bh?  ¤Ã‚ ¦?  ¬Ã‚ °Eou? [4]nâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â‚¬  ? S? Z? ’? z ¤AAOoaU? U U ®U U â‚ ¬wâ‚ ¬i`? `  ®?  ®?  ®hybPCJ? o([pic]hu^ehybPCJOJ? o([pic]hY9lCJ? o([pic]hhYhybPCJ? o([pic]hybPhybPCJ? o([pic]hhYhybPCJ wild animals, wil derness and virginity.

Kant's Philosophy Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kant's Philosophy - Article Example According to Kant there is a priori, an already existing feeling in each human, which guide his actions. It is not the senses or material or experience which gives the conception of right or wrong, instead, right and wrong is already there in every human being. It is up to the individual to opt to go by that â€Å"right feeling† or against it. This inner scale of gauging right or wrong is the one which gives us the sense of duty. Therefore, our actions should be driven through this sense of duty. This implies, that an action is good or bad not because of its end result but because it was done according to the â€Å"inner embedded moral value†. In short, the actions whether the are morally right or wrong have no effect on the consequences This approach would elevate the morality over self interests i.e. â€Å"Morality is not properly the doctrine of how we may make ourselves happy but how we may make ourselves worthy of happiness†. (Practical Reason : p139)..Havin g agreed on the existence of â€Å"inner feeling† to guide our action Kant proposed that it is our free will which enable us to decide which action to adopt. Utilitarianism is another philosophical thought about morality. It emphasize that the ends must be judged to initiate actions. If a lot of good is coming from an action it is perceived to be justified. In case more of harm is done by some action it should not be carried out. That is, morality is directly proportional to the utility of the action. After the conception of this theory lot has been added to provide it stability in the realistic world. This led to the eruption of many branches of Utilitarianism like Act vs. rule Utilitarianism, Motive Utilitarianism, Two-level Utilitarianism and Negative Utilitarianism. In essence, Utilitarianism is exactly opposite of Kant's moral ethical theory. According to Kant the consequences are of no value and the actions are to be taken by pitching them to "ever existing criteria of morality" which is residing deep within any human being. On the other hand Utilitarianism proponents are of the opinion that consequences are to be assessed before the decision is taken about the correctness or incorrectness of an action. This implies that in Utilitarianism there is no set piece of morality as in the case of Kant's theory. However, despite the above major difference in both the theories there are also two similar grounds. One is that in Kant's moral ethical theory there might be occasions in which ones own interest might be of lesser value in a quest of making ourselves "worthy of happiness". Similarly in Utilitarianism if our good have a consequence of bad for many than we have to forego our good in the interest of better consequences i.e. avoiding bad of many. Conversely if our bad lead to a consequence of good for many than the action to be taken should be the one which is bad for us. Therefore selflessness is what comes out in case of both theories. Another common ground is of free will. In Kant's theory it is your free will to adopt the approach which is in line with the inbuilt morality or go other wise. Similarly in Utilitarianism also after considering the consequences it will be the free will to choose the option of an action which has more good or more bad. In both the theories the actions are not dictated as a predetermined course and totally oppose the fatalistic approach to life. It is always difficult to really give a final verdict about the veracity of such ideas. The moral ethical theories of Kant and Utilitarianism have converging and diverging views at different levels. However, Utilitarianism did try to accommodate a shade of

Biography of an American Public Activist Elizabeth Birch Essay

Biography of an American Public Activist Elizabeth Birch - Essay Example In 1992, as she narrates in her interview, Lotus Development Company had extended their services for the provision of domestic partner benefits; an initiative that she thought would highlight the company’s commitment to its employees, who she believed deserved the same. She contends that as the attorney for gay employees, she felt conflicted on whether she could stand by the gay people and still maintain professionalism as an advocate. This was because in Apple Inc there was normal grassroots process within which employees were building cases for domestic partner benefits. The experience of this woman offers the exact case in regards to how gays were being viewed by the majority or some of the individuals in the state. This then offers an analytical basis of stating the perception and the stereotypes held at the time. Elizabeth narrates that once employees were to provide the cases for the domestic partner benefits they built their cases and sent it to the human resource depar tment. This, she notes, was the undoing of the Apple gay and lesbian community as the human resource department came up with excuses of how not to implement such. Some of the excuses were that for the implementation of such to take place, it would cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. The consequences of this were highlighted by the rejection by Apple’s board of directors. This decision enraged Elizabeth who notes that since she was well known worldwide as the advocate for the gay and lesbian and for providing institutions and municipalities with advice regarding the implementation of sexual non-discrimination policies and domestic partner benefits, the move by the Apple board of directors was unacceptable and was in contradiction with what she believed.  

How does Plantinga argue for the claim that belief in God might be Essay

How does Plantinga argue for the claim that belief in God might be properly basic Do you think his argument is good Do you think that the conclusion of his argument is true - Essay Example American analytical philosopher Alvin Carl Plantinga has also added some new dimensions to thoughts about rationality of belief in God by proposing the argument that belief in God is properly basic and needs to justification and evidenced from the other beliefs (Attridge, 2009). Plantinga divulged his philosophical views regarding belief in God and proposed his claim that the belief in God used to be properly basic depending upon the circumstances being faced by the individuals. He argues that there are certain circumstance when the belief in God in properly basic because certain circumstances compel the individuals to build faith upon certain things about God even if they do not find any support and reasons for those things from their other existing beliefs (Oppy and Scott, 2010). Plantinga referred to the classical thought that asserts that belief in God is always held in connection with other beliefs. He opposed this classical thought about the dependency of belief in God upon some evidences from other beliefs and claims that it is not always necessary because people do believe upon many things about God that are not verified and asserted by their other beliefs. He argues that believing in God does not require any argument. He made his claim in his article "Reformed Objection to Natural Theology" published in 1981. After the publication of this article there was strong wave of criticism and opposition was provoked especially from the philosophers having firm belief upon the arguments made by the classical philosophy. Through his claim and argument Plantinga has contributed to the epistemology called reformed epistemology in which he argues that the justification about the belief in God is not dependent upon evidence but it is properly basic and could be held regardless of other belief’s support to it. The argument poses by Plantinga has